Working with Disabled Students

Issues Faced by Students whose Parents are in Jail Parents and guardians should support their students in order to achieve their academic goals. Every disabled child should also get the best attention and care from his or her parents. Students whose parents have been imprisoned will encounter numerous economic strains.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Working with Disabled Students specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This situation makes it impossible for such learners to get quality education and social support. The students encounter numerous health challenges. The children â€Å"also encounter difficulties whenever associating with other people because of underdeveloped social skills† (Dale, 2008, p. 29). Many children of incarcerated parents tend to have underdeveloped behaviors. They also encounter different problems whenever associating with their peers. This situation affects the lives of such stud ents. The students also experience a wide range of risks. They might copy unacceptable behaviors that eventually result in juvenile delinquency. The learners will also abuse different drugs. The â€Å"absence of positive child-parent relationships during early childhood will definitely affect the educational outcomes of such students† (Behnke, 2009, p. 62). This problem becomes complex for disabled students. Educators should consider several ethical principles whenever working with individuals with disabilities. This should be the same case for educators who support different students whose parents have been imprisoned. Teachers should respect the worth and dignity of these students. They should also â€Å"observe their rights to self-determination, confidentiality, and privacy† (Behnke, 2009, p. 63). Social workers and societies should intervene in the lives of these students. The government should use appropriate policies to strength the relationships between such st udents and their parents. This strategy will â€Å"promote the healthy development of the targeted children† (Dale, 2008, p. 72). The learners will also achieve the best academic goals.Advertising Looking for coursework on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Issues Faced by Students under the Care of Elderly Guardians Many students are usually under the care of elderly parents. Some of these elderly caretakers include parents, grandparents, and guardians. Studies show that such students encounter a wide range of challenges. To begin with, the students will lack the best support from such caretakers. This is the case because such guardians are usually physically unfit. They also â€Å"encounter coordination problems and health issues† (Christian, 2009, p. 3). Such issues make it impossible for them to support the needs of the targeted students. The learners will also lack the best emotional support from the ir caretakers. Such elderly parents do not have the required financial strength to support the targeted students. This situation will make it impossible for them to achieve their potentials. Many elderly guardians do not have the strength to empower such disabled students. This fact explains why new policies are required to support these students. The elderly face numerous problems because of their age. Such caregivers are also unable to empower these students. Many learners are using various technologies and devices in order to achieve the best educational goals. It is appropriate for such students to get the best feedbacks and ideas from their guardians. Such students will not benefit from modern technologies. The elderly do not have the time to mentor and coach these students (Christian, 2009). This gap encourages them to engage in unacceptable behaviors and practices. The individuals will start to take various drugs. The students will also lack the best care from these elderly c aregivers. Teachers should gather the right information from every stressed family. This information will make it easier for them to support the changing needs of such students (Dale, 2008). They should also develop positive relationships with these elderly caregivers. The practice will ensure every student achieves his or her academic goals. Reference List Behnke, S. (2009). Disability as an ethical issue: A law school symposium offers an opportunity for psychologists to reflect on the role of stigma within our own field. American Psychological Association, 40(6), 62-64.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Working with Disabled Students specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Christian, S. (2009). Children of Incarcerated Parents. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/documents/cyf/childrenofincarceratedparents.pdf Dale, N. (2008). Working With Families of Children with Special Needs: Partnership and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge. This coursework on Working with Disabled Students was written and submitted by user Colin Taylor to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Definition of a Solid in Chemistry and Science

The Definition of a Solid in Chemistry and Science A  solid is a  state of matter characterized by particles arranged such that their shape and volume are relatively stable. The constituents of a solid tend to be packed together much closer than the particles in a gas or liquid. The reason a solid has a rigid shape is that the atoms or molecules are tightly connected via chemical bonds. The bonding may produce either a regular lattice (as seen in ice, metals, and crystals) or an amorphous shape (as seen in glass or amorphous carbon).  A solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with liquids, gases, and plasma. Solid state physics and solid state chemistry are two branches of science dedicated to studying the properties and synthesis of solids. Examples of Solids The matter with a defined shape and volume is solid. There are many examples: A brickA pennyA piece of woodA chunk of aluminum metal (or any metal at room temperature except mercury)Diamond (and most other crystals) Examples of things that are not solids include liquid water, air, liquid crystals, hydrogen gas, and smoke. Classes of Solids The different types of chemical bonds that join the particles in solids exert characteristic forces that can be used to classify solids. Ionic bonds (e.g. in table salt or NaCl) are strong bonds that often result in crystalline structures that may dissociate to form ions in water. Covalent bonds (e.g., in sugar or sucrose) involve the sharing of valence electrons. Electrons in metals seem to flow because of metallic bonding. Organic compounds often contain covalent bonds and interactions between separate portions of the molecule due to van der Waals forces. Major classes of solids include: Minerals:  Minerals are natural solids formed by geological processes. A mineral has a uniform structure. Examples include diamond, salts, and mica.Metals:  Solid metals include elements (e.g., silver) and alloys (e.g., steel). Metals are typically hard, ductile, malleable, and excellent conductors of heat and electricity.Ceramics:  Ceramics are solids consisting of inorganic compounds, usually oxides. Ceramics tend to be hard, brittle, and corrosions include silicon and gallium arsenide. Nanomaterials:  Nanomaterials are tiny solid particles at the nanometer size. These solids may display very different physical and chemical properties from large-scale versions of the same materials. or example, gold nanoparticles are red and melt at a lower temperature than gold metal.Biomaterials:  These are natural materials, such as collagen and bone, that are often capable of self-assembly.

Essay Sample on Hockey as a Part National Identity in Canada

Essay Sample on Hockey as a Part National Identity in Canada Grueneau and Whitson raised the question of hockey being a part of the search for national identity in Canada. They outlined that hockey was given even greater symbolic currency in recent years being one of the few objects recognized to be truly Canadian (Grueneau, Whitson, 1993).   Hockey Night in Canada reflects an idea that hockey brings together Canadians in a common experience of the game. In this case sport does not play the only role of glorifying masculinity and appealing to humans urge of violence, it also unites Canadians in the understanding of own culture, ideological preferences and values. Taking readers through the history of ice hockey, authors try to illustrate connections of hockey history with the development of national mentality, country economy, cultural and social trends. They also present an idea that the development of hockey culture as it is now in Canada was impossible without interference of governmental institutions, economically interested parties and mass media into the process. They also express an idea that hockey obsession is a part of a search for national identity, however they somehow hint that national identity is itself a myth just like hockey passion. Gruneau and Whitson tried to look at the hockey game from the different from custom angle. For some people this game was an incarnation of the craving for victory, violence and masculinity, however, the authors give us a perspective on a game being the uniting link of Canada citizens who watch and play the game in the mutual impulse toward common national identity (Gruneau, Whitson, 1993). To further explore the links of hockey to Canadian government, politics and economics a closer look at Jim Silvers writings should be taken. Gruneau and Whitson hint in their book that the development of modern hockey would have been impossible without involvement of government and mass media (1993) and Silver gives us perfect example in support of this idea. Silver writes about the Winnipeg Jets history, their financial crisis and movement to Phoenix in 1996. At that time Winnipeg people were very much concerned with the necessity to sell the Jets and move the team to the US. They raised funds in support of favorites and supported governmental expenditures on the team (Silver, 1996). However Silver argues the idea that all population of Winnipeg supported such expenditures of public money. He himself argues the necessity of spending millions of dollars on Winnipeg Jets and claims that mass media was misrepresenting the extent of public interest in keeping the Jets at home to lead pe ople into assumption that keeping Jets is crucial for national pride and identity. Silver did not reject the fact that public was highly concerned with the issue and that keeping the Jets was important for national identity recognition, however he suggested that there are limits to how far government can go in support of national hockey team. Silvers writings intersect with Gruneau and Whitson idea of hockey being a part of governmental and economic games. He suggests that ice hockey is a great part of Canada economy and public interest in the game should be viewed as partly caused by governmental and marketers’ methods to lead people into belief that hockey is a mean to identify Canadians as nation with unique culture. Simple mathematics will take us to assumption that the higher is public interest in the game the more profitable is the hockey business for government and businessmen. Therefore sometimes mass media exaggerates the meaning of hockey to worm up public concern w ith the game. Silver also shows how hockey plays a role in political games. The supporters of saving Winnipeg Jets at any cost received greater credit from publicity, while politicians with an opposite view became the target of public abuse (Silver,1996). However as well as Gruneau and Whitson, Silver does not reject that hockey is a mean for Canadians to identify themselves as a nation, indeed he claimed that the case with Winnipeg Jets showed how powerful can people be when united with the common idea (Silver, 1996). Beardsley used the hockey theme as a prism to look at different aspects of life. His collection of hockey fiction is an evidence of how important ice hockey is to Canada’s culture. The book covers different aspects of game such as role of hockey in developing child’s personality, violence and masculinity in hockey and women participation in the game believed to be mens sport (Beardsley, 1997). Almost any story in the collection underlines the importance of the game in forming Canada’s culture and national identity. As well as Gruneau and Whitson (1993), Beardsley touches upon hockey being no more a reincarnation of desire for violence, but a mean to find the common identity as a unified nation. He also shows the path of hockey development turning this game from the violent act on the ice to the art and national pride which finds its place in the heart of any Canadian (1997). Economical driving force is also touched upon. However, dislike Gruneau and Whitson (1993 ), Beardsley does not accept the fact of hockey being Americanized as a logical outcome of economic relations, but supports the idea that Canadians should be more self confident when taking outsiders to NHL and use national spirit to repulse Americanization of hockey. He discusses opinion that foreign players have been a bad encouragement for Canadians self-esteem and shows how American entrepreneurship negatively affected the spirit of the game. However he does not reject the fact that hockey and economy are highly correlated intersecting here with the opinion of Gruneau and Whitson (Beardley, 1997, Gruneau and Whitson, 1993). Etue and Williams On the Edge: Women Making Hockey History is an insight into the world of women’s hockey. It raises important questions of discrimination when funding women’s national hockey team, media misrepresenting the facts about women’s hockey, difficulties in gaining public interest and receiving credits for the work done by women for the sake of national game (Etue, Williams, 1996). However this book is one of the best evidences of how violent game turned into the national passion resulting in uniting all Canada population despite of the sex and age for the sake of the hockey game, one of the most vivid examples of Canada’s unique culture. This book shows how sport affects the feeling of national identity which corresponds to Gruneau and Whitson’s writings. It illustrates how passionate can Canadians be about hockey, devoting their lives to this sport. Authors write about talented women playing this exciting, physically challenging game, ov ercoming the obstacles on their way to the big ice rinks for the love of national game. The book includes references to the economical impacts on hockey, however, mostly this is an ode to the strong women passionate about national game and proud of being the part of it. Along with the other books appeared to describe the level of nation’s involvement with game Hockey Players Sonnets Overtime Edition was published in 2003. This is one more piece of literature illustrating how important hockey is for the development of national identity. Gruneau and Whitson’s opinion about hockey being a myth developed by corporations finds support in Lee’s poems, but ‘the myth of boys and truth of men’ (Lee, 2003) shows that despite such myth creation there has always been a place in Canadians’ hearts for the pure love to hockey as a game identifying them as single nation. When Gretzky went to L.A. my whole nation trembled like hot water in a tea cup when train goes by (Lee, 2003). This passage from The Trade that Shook the Hockey World (Lee, 2003) shows what a significant impact hockey has on Canadians and also illustrates how economical benefits may interfere with peoples priorities. The single fact of existence of a collect ion of poems dedicated to hockey is an important sign of this game being an undividable part of Canada’s culture. Canadians’ search for national identity has been long and difficult. Being a colonial country, for Canada it has been hard to identify itself as a country with unique culture and national identity. However such things as unique governmental system, public health care system, CBC, and of course hockey helped Canadians to find the means to identify themselves as a nation and find common issues close to the mentality of any Canada citizen. Some may argue that Canadians involvement with hockey is a product of successful marketing, however, no matter what means were used to develop national identity and what were the primary goals of developing it – the outcomes are always more important. In this case the outcomes are the ability of Canadians to unite in a common goal and interest, and Canadians feeling of national identity which is an extremely important factor in identifying patriotic feelings toward homeland. This is a sample essay on Sports written from scratch by one of our academic writers. If you want to order a custom written essay, research paper, term paper, dissertation or thesis contact our company to get professional academic writing help.

The Wall - Picture Book About A Visit to Vietnam War Memorial

The Wall - Picture Book About A Visit to Vietnam War Memorial Author Eve Bunting has a gift for writing about serious subjects in a way that makes them accessible to young children, and she has done just that in her picture book The Wall. This childrens picture book is about a father and his young sons visit to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Its a good book to share on Memorial Day, as well as Veterans Day and any other day of the year. The Wall by Eve Bunting: The Story A young boy and his dad have traveled all the way to Washington, DC to see the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. They have come to find the name of the boys grandfather, his dads father. The little boy calls the memorial my grandfathers wall. As the father and son look for the grandfathers name, they meet others who are visiting the memorial, including a veteran in a wheelchair and a couple weeping while hugging one another. They see flowers, letters, flags, and a teddy bear that have been left at the wall. When they find the name, they do a rubbing and leave a school photograph of the boy on the ground below his grandfathers name. When the boy says, Its sad here, his father explains, Its a place of honor. The Books Impact This brief description does not do justice to the book. It is a poignant tale, made more so by the muted watercolor illustrations of Richard Himler. The boys obvious feelings of loss for a man he never knew, and his fathers quiet remark, He was just my age whe he was killed, really bring home the impact of war on the families whose lives have been changed by the loss of a loved one. Yet, while the father and sons visit to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is bittersweet, it is a comfort to them, and this, in turn, is a comfort to the reader. The Author and the Illustrator Author Eve Bunting was born in Ireland and came to the United States as a young woman. She has written more than 200 childrens books. These range from picture books to young adult books. She has written other childrens books on serious subjects, such as Fly Away Home (homelessness), Smoky Night (the Los Angeles riots) and Terrible Things: An Allegory of the Holocaust. Eve Bunting has also written numerous more lighthearted childrens books, such as Sunflower House and Flower Garden, both of which are on my Top 10 Children’s Picture Books About Gardens and Gardening list. In addition to The Wall, artist Richard Himler has illustrated a number of other books by Eve Bunting. These include Fly Away Home, A Days Work, and Train to Somewhere. Among the childrens books hes illustrated for other authors are Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes and Katies Trunk. Recommendation The Wall is recommended for six- to nine-year-olds. Even if your child is an independent reader, I suggest that you use it as a read-aloud. By reading it aloud to your children, you will have the opportunity to answer any questions they may have, to reassure them, and to discuss the story and the purpose of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. You might also put this book on your list of books to read around Memorial Day and Veterans Day. (Clarion Books, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1990; Reading Rainbow paperback edition, 1992. ISBN: 9780395629772)

Astronomy and Quantum Physics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Astronomy and Quantum Physics - Essay Example The macrocosmic view of astrophysics posits billions of galaxies besides our own, innumerable stars, and planets, and this further points to the fact that we really know little about the universe in our limited, arrogant, ego states of consciousness. The religious view informs this understanding through â€Å"shamanic ecstasy† as Kessler calls it in â€Å"Studying Religion: An Introduction Through Cases,† where he describes the shaman travelling to the heavens and attaining a mystical unitive experience. (Kessler, 2007, p.143) In another way, Kessler suggests that the Buddhist conception of enlightenment may relate to a cosmic experience of being that is related directly to the universe of astrophysics. (Kessler, 2007, p.143-4) Knowing what we do of the nature of the cosmos, with many different possibilities of life, and also understanding Buddhist conceptions of re-incarnation, these two views can combine in a manner that merges the spiritual and physical to see life c ontinuing and developing in different forms across a variety of planets and star systems. The microcosmic view of quantum physics tends to infinite smallness where the astrophysics tends towards infinite expansion. That the two may merge in large cycles of time where the universe expands and then contracts to a single point over periods of billions of millennia or more is a massive concept of time cycles that accords with the Buddhist philosophical standpoint and modern physics.

Promoting health for child and young adult Case Study

Promoting health for child and young adult - Case Study Example The aim of this research is to assess the healthcare requirements and needs babies and in the context of providing a high quality of life for babies through nursing. In order to attain this end, the following ends will be explored: There are numerous debates about when policy covers babies. The right to the abortion of foetuses implies that the scope of the laws protecting children is somewhat restrained and limited by the rights of parents to decide whether to have babies or not (Ballatt & Campling, 2009). However, rights are granted to babies form the womb through the fact that healthcare facilities are required to take reasonable care to ensure that babies are separated from contagious diseases that could spread from mothers and behaviours like smoking that could adversely affect babies. The actual work and obligation towards giving these children care lies with healthcare providers and this include specialist care practice health nurses (SCPHN) who might have the obligation to provide care at the facility and follow up with visits afterwards (Dolan & Holt, 2012). These health visits and other activities by SCPHN will involve observing various rules and regulations and ensuring that care is taken in order to analyse the babies and provide their needs (Luker, Orr, & McHugh, 2012; Bridgemann, Keating, & Lind, 2013). The SCPHN is bound by the codes of the NMC which include providing care in good faith by respecting the needs of all people including the babies and their mothers in order to safeguard their health and safety. There are NICE practices which include maintaining certain specific standards in promoting the proper care of babies from birth through to the first five years through high quality, cost effective patient care as well as the use of treatment and prevention (National Institue for Health and Care Excellence, 2013). Also, the Healthy Child Programme of the UK government provides a range of guidance that prompts care amongst healthcare

Global Poverty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Global Poverty - Research Paper Example Extreme poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa however increased to 46% in 2001 and it combined numbers of individuals living in extreme poverty (World Bank, 2004). Some of the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia suffered a sharp decline in income in the 1990s and the breakup of the Soviet Union also caused a significant reduction in their Gross Development Product per capita (Radio Free Europe, 2012). Poverty rates in the region increased as a result; improvements were gradually seen in the following years with per capital incomes recovering and poverty rates dropping. The World Bank also declared that poverty rates would start improving in Georgia and Ukraine in 2007 (Radio Free Europe, 2012). World Bank figures also indicate that based on 2004 figures, percentage of people living in poor households in East Asia and the Pacific region are at 9.07%; in Europe and Central Asia at 0.95%; in Latin America and the Caribbean at 8.64%; Middle East and North Africa at 1.47%; in South Asia at 30.84%; and Sub-Saharan Africa at 41.09%. There are also other indicators which are being used to indicate poverty, including life expectancy, child mortality, food supplies or calories taken per day, wage, literacy, and access to clean water (World Bank, 2004). ... Africa is also predicted to suffer even worse conditions in the years to come. Economic aspects of poverty highlights material needs, mostly those which include the necessities of daily living, like food, clothing, shelter, and safe drinking water. Poverty is therefore understood as the condition where a person or community does not have the basic needs to support the minimum standards of well-being, mostly due to the lack of a continued source of income (Townsend, 1979). An assessment of the social elements of poverty considers scarcity and elements of distribution resources as well as power forces in society as determinants of poverty levels. The social elements of poverty include lack of access to information, education, health, as well as political power. Poverty may also be considered in terms of unequal social conditions and social relationship including dependency, social exclusion, and failure to participate or to establish connections in society (Townsend, 1979). This social exclusion can be reduced via higher connections in the general society. The World Bank discussed that based on their assessment of about 20,000 poor individuals in 23 countries, they identified the following elements as determinants of poverty: unstable livelihoods, excluded locations, physical restrictions, gender relations, issues in social relations, limited or reduced security or safety, abuse of power, limited capabilities, disempowered institutions, and weak community organizations (Blastland, 2007). Under these conditions, poverty can be as significant problem, restricting opportunities as well as capabilities among the population affected. The main individuals affected by this issue are the people in developing countries,

The Google Maps Road Rally Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Google Maps Road Rally - Essay Example Austin spreads into 271.8 squares miles in which 6.9 square miles occupies the water. Austin is located near Colorado River along with three beautiful artificial lakes prefixing with lake named as Bird Lake, Austin, and Walter E. Long. Google maps provide the location of lake Austin as shown in the below figure from the website of Google maps after zooming the location. There is beautiful wildflower meadow and shrub/sapling habitat is evolving as the trees grow in stretch of riverbank besides Colorado River. Other species is also showing presence. Biological diversity, better water quality, improvement in oxygen level and flood control is also helpful maintaining sustainable ecosystem in area. The reservoir created in 1939 supports the electricity generation and flood control measurement in the area. Mount Bonnell is another place of interest in the vicinity of Lake Austin to serve as watchtower for the city dwellers. This serves to provide sightseeing to the visitors from the height of 780-feet with nickname Covert Park in the area of 5.36 acres to enjoy the nature’s beauty present in surrounding hills (â€Å"Google Maps†). Population of city is dominated by 63.7% of White Americans in which 49.9% are non-Hispanic according to the survey of 2005-07. The Hispanic population contributes to the 30.5% of the population. Weather condition of city supports the prevalence of subtropical humid climate that can provide sunny days across most of the time in the year. Snowfalls are rare but, it occurs at the interval of two years. City administration comprises the member of council to maintain the governance and law in the Austin. Politically the city remains divided into the groups of environmentalist and promoters of urban advancement (â€Å"Google Maps†). Economically Austin remains one of the thriving city of the US acting as hub for high tech companies including IT giants such as Dell, IBM, Motorola, HP, Apple. University of Texas remains one

Anti-copper Therapy among Pregnant Women Can Lower the Risk of Wilsons Research Paper

Anti-copper Therapy among Pregnant Women Can Lower the Risk of Wilsons Disease in Their Children - Research Paper Example Therefore, the physicians encourage the pregnant women to use zinc in reducing the amount of copper in their neurological system in a mild way that would not affect the unborn child. Trientine can also be highly effective in treating copper toxicity, while protecting the expectant mothers and her unborn child’s life (Walshe, 129). Some of the measures which health experts would take are a screening test falsification ring assessment and ceruloplasmin serum copper assays. The test relies on a liver biopsy using quantitative copper assays. Immediately a pregnant woman is diagnosed with such symptoms the siblings might be genotyped via making comparison. Medical practitioners advocate for proper use of anti copper therapy. Anti –copper drugs widely used include Trientine, zinc and tetrathiomolybdate. Penicillamine is often administered to pregnant women. Despite its toxicity, it is proven to be the best. Trientine is alternatively used to people who not tolerate Penicillamine and the body responds better notably there is lower quantity of urine copper, which gently reduces to insignificant levels (Schilsky and Scott, 214). In reality, compliance with the recommended therapy and close monitoring of the copper status are the most beneficial practices that patients should observe during treatment. Similarly, the most effectively monitoring tool is used non-ceruloplasmin plasma copper though it also has some side effects; their frequency and impact are minimal. In addition, the neurological worsening especially in the patients using Trientine for the first time is less severe as in Penicillamine. Zinc, it is extremely vital for the maintenance of the therapy. It reduces mettallothionein in the cells. When using copper, urinary secretion of harmful copper is similar to the normal body loading system (Schilsky and Scott, 220). Tetrathiomolybdate, is also used to eliminate copper out of the body, it forms a complex tripartite of

Two theories of motivation Essay Example for Free

Two theories of motivation Essay The subject of motivation can be approached from a number of perspectives. Some theories approach motivation as coming from within a person (Drive Theory), whereas other theories approach motivation as coming from within the person (Incentive Theory). Compare and contrast two theories of motivation explaining how the two approaches may differ and how they may be similar. Does one theory seem to explain motivation better than the other? Support your argument with examples from each theory. Motives are reasons people hold for initiating and performing voluntary behaviour. They indicate the meaning of human behaviour, and they may reveal a persons values. Motives often affect a persons perception, cognition, emotion and behaviour. A person who is highly motivated to gain social status, for example, may be observant of marks of social distinction, may think often about issues that pertain to wealth, may especially enjoy the feeling of self-importance, and may behave in ways associated with upper-class status . By defining motives as reasons, we do not imply that motives are primarily cognitive; any more than establishing a motive for crime in a court of law requires conscious premeditation. A person can have a reason to behave, and thus a motive, without necessarily being aware of it. Aristotle (330BCE/1953) divided motives into ends versus means on the basis of the individuals purpose for performing the behaviour. Ends are indicated when a person engages in a behaviour for no apparent reason other than that is what the person desires to do. Examples include a child playing with a ball for physical exercise and a student reading a book out of curiosity. In each of these examples, the goal is desired for its own sake. In contrast, means are indicated when a person performs an act for its instrumental value. Examples include a professional athlete who plays football for a salary and a student who studies to improve a grade. In each of these examples, the goal (salary, grade) is desired because it produces something else. A person might seek a salary, for example, as a means of enhancing social status, or high grades as a means of pleasing a parent. An analysis of a persons behaviour may identify a series of instrumental acts followed by one or more end goals that complete a behaviour chain.  For example, a person may take a second job for the extra salary (instrumental motive), desire the extra salary to purchase health insurance (instrumental motive), and desire the health insurance to benefit their family (end goal). This example of a behaviour chain shows three behaviours, two motivated by instrumental goals and a third by an end goal. Logically, only goals that are desired for their own sake can serve as the end of a purposeful explanation of a series of human acts (Reiss, 2003). The number of instrumental motives is, for all practical purposes, unlimited. Only imagination limits how may different ways individuals can pursue the end goal of, say, power. In contrast, the number of ends is limited by human nature (Reiss, 2003). Two theoretical perspectives have been advanced concerning end goals. Multifaceted theory holds that the various end goals are largely unrelated to each other, perhaps to the point where they are genetically distant sources of motivation with different evolutionary histories. Multifaceted theorist include philosophers who have suggested lists of the most fundamental motives of human nature (Eg Spinoza, 1675/1949), psychologists who have put forth evolutionary theories of motivation (Eg McDougall, 1926) and psychologists who have suggested theories of human needs (Eg Murray, 1938). In contrast, unitary or global theorists hold that end goals can be profitably reduced to a small number of categories based on common characteristics. Unitary theorists seek the underlying psychological principles that are expressed by diverse motivational events. The ancient Greek philosophers, for example, reduced end goals into categories expressing the needs of the body, mind and soul (Eg Plato, 375 BCE/1966). Hedonists distinguished between end goals associated with the pleasures enhanced and those related to pain reduction (Russell, 1945). Freud (1916/1963) reduced motives to sexual and aggressive instincts. Today, some social psychologists classify end goals into two global categories, called drives (or extrinsic motivation) and intrinsic motives  (IMs). The distinction has been influential 1,921 scholarly publications on intrinsic motivation (IM) appeared during January 1967 and the present day (source: PsycINFO). IM has been investigated in social psychology (eg Ryan Deci, 2000), developmental psychology (eg, Harter, 1981), clinical psychology (eg Eisenberger Cameron, 1996), organisational psychology (eg, Houkes, Janssen, de Jonge, Nijhuis, 2001), and eduational psychology (eg, Kohn, 1993). Drive Theory Thorndikes (1911) law of effect reduced human motivation to categories of reward and punishment. This law holds that responses are strengthened when they lead to satisfaction and weakened when they lead to punishment. Psychologists studying learning soon realised Thorndikes law is a tautology or a proposition that is circular (true by definition). The following statements, for example, are circular with respect to each other: Rewards strengthen behaviour and Any event that strengthens behaviour is a reward. The concept of drive was introduced to escape from the circularity of the law of effect (Brown, 1961). Instead of identifying reward as any stimulus or satisfying event that strengthens behaviour, drive theorists defined it as a reduction in a state of deprivation. The statements Drive reduction strengthens behaviour and Drive reduction occurs when a state of deprivation is lessened are not circular to each other. Hull (1943) recognised four types of drives: hunger, thirst, sex and escape from pain. In many animal learning experiments, investigators have induced drives by depriving animals of an important need prior to the experiment. The deprivation of food, for example, establishes food as a powerful reward, increasing the animals motivation to learn responses that produce food (Skinner, 1938). Much of animal learning theory is based on the results of psychological studies with food-deprived or water-deprived animals. Unitary Intrinsic Motivation Theory The unitary construct of IM was put forth as an alternative to drive theory. The initial insight was that many of the motives not explained well by drive theory motives such as exploration (curiosity), autonomy, and play have common properties. To a large extent, unitary IM theory initially represented an attempt to show the essential differences between drives and what psychodynamic theorists have called ego motives. In the past, the distinction between drives and IMs has been thought to have a physiological basis, at least according to some published remarks. The general idea was that drives such as hunger and thirst arise from tissue needs involving peripheral components of the nervous system, where as IMs arise from psychological or cognitive processes involving primary central neural activity. Deci (1975), for example, wrote that the primary effects of IM are in the tissues of the central nervous system rather than in the non-nervous system tissues (pg 61). The physiological paradigm for distinguishing drives from IMs always lacked scientific support; indeed, we now know that it is physiological nonsense. Motives such as hunger and thirst, for example, involve significant central nervous system or cognitive activity (Berntson Cacioppo, 2000). Both the behaviourist concept of drive and the concept of IM as nondrive have no precise physiological meaning and originally were put forth at a time when little was know about the physiology of motivation. Conclusion Since antiquity, scholars have debated whether human motives can be reduced to a few global categories. Ancient Greek philosophers, for example, distinguish between motives associated with the body (such as hunger and thirst) and those associated with the intellect (such as curiosity, morality and friendship). In the early part of the 20th century, Freud (1916/1963) argued that all motives are ultimately linked to sex. Hedonists, on the other hand, reduced all motives to pleasure seeking versus pain avoidance. The concept of IM can be viewed as a modern example of the effort in motivation reductionism. IM theorists divide motives into two global  categories: drives (as called extrinsic motivation) and intrinsic motivation. Drives are about biologic survival needs, whereas IMs pertain to what some have called ego motives. Hunger, thirst, and pain avoidance are paradigm examples of drives, whereas curiosity, autonomy, and play are paradigm examples of IMs.

British Identity: A Shared Culture

British Identity: A Shared Culture The concept of identity has both personal and social perspectives but, irrespective of focus, each is concerned with categorisation and assumptions of similarity and difference. Social identity relates to the links that exist between people and places, the ideas and practices that align individuals to one social group as opposed to another and the feeling of acceptance and belonging which comes from such allegiance. Great Britain consists of a group of individual countries: England, Wales and Scotland, each of which joined the union at different points in a turbulent history. Northern Ireland, whilst part of the United Kingdom, is not part of Great Britain despite its population being included in the British political process. In spite of these confusing, apparently all-encompassing titles, each individual nation retains a separate identity in addition to the collective ones conferred by the UK and GB acronyms. Historically, English dominance of the union has been a source of contention and in recent years the individual identities of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have become more officially recognised by the adoption of a partially devolved political process for the former two and a power sharing agreement with the Irish Republic for the latter. The merits or shortcomings of devolution fall outside the scope of this essay, nevertheless, it could be argued that at a time when the very notion of Britishness is up for debate, separating the union, even if only for political purposes, will do nothing to strengthen a collective sense of national identity if, in fact, one ever truly existed. Diversity amongst the individual nations of the United Kingdom is only one part of the story and despite being an island and thus having an easily recognisable border, the reach of Britain extends well beyond geographical limits. Great Britains empire building past has left a web of connections that span the world. The British Empire at its height covered a quarter of the globe, and whilst many former colonies, dependencies and protectorates have since regained independence, the history of a British presence in parts of South Asia, Africa and the Caribbean left a postcolonial legacy of citizenship rights which has contributed to the multi-cultural, multi-ethnic society that exists in Britain today. Whether because of commerce or conquest, as an escape from poverty or persecution, Britains population comprises a diverse collection of people, some of whom may have connections to and, therefore, identify with places other than the British Isles. Who we are and who others think we are has a lot to do with where we live and our origins, but it takes much more than territorial borders to define national identity. It is almost impossible to say exactly what British identity is or should be in the 21st century and as a result the very idea of Britishness has been the source of much anxiety, uncertainty and political debate in recent years (Clarke, 2009, P. 210). From politicians to social commentators, newspaper editors to academics, all have suggested ways in which the meaning of Britishness could be constructed and fixed. Amongst other things, Clarke suggests that British national identity may mean having a sense of place, a shared way of life, a common history and a recognised image of race or ethnicity (2009, p. 219), but in light of the diverse nature of Britains population some of his suggestions seem more plausible than others. A sense of place can only come from a feeling of acceptance and belonging, hard to achieve when even after three generations of British citizenship your community is still viewed with suspicion and resentment. The idea of a common history may not sit well with everyone, especially those whose ancestors were the subject of domination, oppression and exploitation. A recognised image of race or ethnicity implies a singular recognition, fine if your skin is the right colour, but at risk from discrimination if it is not, legislation can protect but it cannot change attitudes. Even though a shared way of life seems to be a reasonable suggestion, cultural differences make this eq ually difficult to imagine. Culture, according to Clarke, has at least two meanings (2009, p. 219). The first suggested interpretation is what he calls high culture; this includes art, literature, theatre and music. Writers such as Shakespeare, Austen and Dickens, artists such as Turner and Constable and composers such as Elgar all supposedly provide an apparently shared set of reference points with which all British people can identify (2009, p. 221). However, Clarke also notes that the stressed importance of English names in the list of preferred cultural icons excludes not only those members of British society whose origins, whether real or imagined, lie outside its geographical limits, but those from other parts of the UK too. Raymond Williams (1958, cited in Clarke, 2009, p. 219) calls this a selective tradition. Therefore, to suggest the use of British high culture as a unifying tool is to exclude a large section of society to whom it is probably irrelevant and perhaps even unintelligible. Clarkes suggestion of a shared way of life also falls under the cultural banner. Normal everyday practices of living such as dress, food, customs and religious observance are all important in defining the meaning of culture. Common forms of behaviour, values, morals and ethics are important in a shared way of life but immediately this highlights some problems. Religious and cultural differences, for example, may make behaviour considered acceptable to people in one community completely unacceptable to those of another. Not all diversity is necessarily ethnic or religious, however, and age, gender, social background and political differences can all divide as well as unite. Having established the difficulty in accepting shared culture as a means of defining British identity, the idea of shared values has been suggested by both David Blunkett and Trevor Phillips. Mr. Blunkett, former UK Home Secretary, suggested that Britishness is defined à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ through our shared values, our history of tolerance, of openness (2005, cited in Clarke, 2009, P. 221). Trevor Phillips, former Chairman of the Commission for Racial Equality, also suggested that Britishness à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ lies in a way of living à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ In a diverse society, the shared values are the fundamental glue that holds us together; and the way we behave towards each other is the outward manifestation of our values. (2007, cited in Clarke, 2009, PP. 222-223). Both these statements, whilst obviously well meant, do not stand up to scrutiny. To suggest that the British people are tolerant and open is to deny history. Perhaps Blunkett and Phillips are simply stating how they would like peo ple to think and act, in which case their argument will likely fall on many deaf ears! For Blunkett and Phillips diversity is a positive thing, something to embrace and celebrate. They suggest that only through tolerance and openness to diversity can Britain gain a unifying sense of identity. Their views have been contested, however, and statements denouncing the acceptance and encouragement of diversity have been equally prominent. David Goodhart, a magazine editor, has suggested that increasing diversity in Britain has caused us to become a nation of strangers. He also suggests, As Britain becomes more diverse that common culture is being eroded (2004, cited in Clarke, 2009, pp225-226). Whatever common culture he happens to be referring to; he suggests that its loss is leading to a lack of solidarity and social cohesion. His opinion, unlike that of Blunkett and Phillips, however, does not carry the weight of authority since it is a personal opinion expressed in a magazine article. In complete contrast to Goodhart, Bhikhu Parekh, in a report for the Runnymeade Trust, suggests that diversity and collective national identity need not be mutually exclusive. Whilst acknowledging the risk of social fragmentation and racism, Parekh suggests that if all members of society feel equally valued, have access to equal opportunities, lead fulfilling lives and shoulder the burden of societal responsibility that it may be possible to develop a shared identity and common sense of belonging (2000, cited in Clarke, 2009, pp. 226-227). In a diverse society, therefore, the concept of national identity should be all-inclusive; clearly, this cannot depend on a shared culture. Moreover, simply telling people how to think or behave will not change attitudes nor make them feel united. Ultimately, perhaps economic and social equality will lead to a unified purpose and sense of collective identity or perhaps not, this is clearly a complex question without a single answer. (1500 words) Life stage analysis: Maturity – Old Age Life stage analysis: Maturity – Old Age In 2005, an estimated one in six individuals was over the age of 65, representing 16 percent of the UK population[1]. The National Statistics Office reports that the largest population increase was evidenced in the 85+ age group, growing by more than 64,000 (6 per cent) in 2005, totalling 1.2 million individuals[2]. Many factors are responsible for this the growth rate in the over 65, primarily in the later older adult stage of 85+, as healthcare and technology are improving and leading to increased survival rates, coupled by the post World War One baby boomers reaching their later adult years[3]. Increasingly, nursing and other professional groups are utilizing Enquiry Based Learning (EBL) that uses situations from real life to analyse issues while learning from a nursing perspective with an emphasis on refining capabilities in actual nursing practice[4]. Researchers emphasize the open-ended questioning used for complex problems or scenarios that allow the nurse to seek out new evidence[5]. Using an Enquiry Based Learning scenario, this paper will present the case of special needs family and with an emphasis on life stage analysis of the elderly. Following a brief case presentation, this paper will define the maturity-old age life stage, describing various factors specific to maturity that influence the person’s biological, psychological and social perspectives. Personal and practical nursing experience with mature/older patients is presented followed by what has been learned from the research on how to effectively provide nursing care in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes to older individuals. Case presentation This is the case of a nuclear family. Mr. and Mrs. Smythe’s are adults with two children, a daughter E. who is 14 years old and pregnant and a son who is 4 years old afflicted with Downs Syndrome and suffers with intermittent breathing problems due to the Down’s syndrome. Both children live at home with their parents. Mrs. And Mrs. Smythe are reasonably healthy with no chronic health concerns at this time. Mr. Smythe works full time in a position outside of the home. Mrs. Smythe is a full-time homemaker. Mr. Smythe’s two parents are both alive at 82 years of age and living together in their own dwelling. Both parents are reasonably healthy for their age with no chronic health problems identified at this time. Mrs. Smythe’s father, Mr. Jones, is 86 and a recent widower (of three months). Following the death of her mother, Mrs. Smythe invited her father to live with her family. Mr. Jones is in fair health, although he is depressed and having difficulty adjusting to the new environment at his daughter’s home, the issues with her children and the loss of his wife all occurring within a short time. Assessment Life stage identification This paper will focus on the three individuals in Erikson’s Maturity stage of life, aged 65 to death[6]. This life stage is marked by the psychosocial integrity vs. despair conflict, such that individuals are reflecting back on their lives and either accepts the thought of their death with a sense of accomplishment and fulfilment or a feeling of despair and regret[7]. Smith[8] identifies the 65+ age group as belonging in Levinson’s late adulthood developmental stage. Factors specific to maturity – Physiological/biological As individual ages, many physiological changes take place in virtually all physiological systems, ranging from the endocrine, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, skin, hair and nails and nervous system[9]. Globally, there is a reduction in cells and cellular metabolism, as the body gradually becomes less efficient[10]. Skin looses subcutaneous fat, things and there is a reduction of collagen and elastin combined with a 50 percent reduction in cell replacement[11]. Respiratory muscles degenerate and respiratory capacity decreases, alveoli decline in size and the lungs become more rigid as the individual ages.[12] The heart reduces in size and contractile strength and cardiac efficiency is reduced by as much as 30 – 35 percent[13]. There is a general decrease in height, bone mass, muscle mass and collagen with less joint elasticity[14]. Sleep patterns are altered, with regular wakeful periods during the night[15]. The aging body does not readily distinguish between host cells and infection along with a reduced ability to absorb vitamin B12, decreasing hematocrit and hemoglobin levels. Of particular importance is the reduced drug clearance by approximately 50 percent, often leading to increased risk of drug interactions among elderly individuals who are frequently on more than one pharmaceutical agent[16]. Factors specific to maturity – Psychological and Sociological The death of a spouse is the leading cause of disruptive life-event stress and conflict[17] affecting the way an individual understands themselves and their role in society and the family. Rokach and Brock found that loneliness has a strong correlation with self-esteem in the elderly[18]. Marital status and the death of a spouse contribute to feelings of isolation and loneliness in the elderly, creating a sense of stigma in the individual, causing emotional distress, feelings of rejection and isolation, especially when care is taken over by others such with the death of a spouse[19]. In particular, men have a difficult time with their own emotions, perceiving their social needs for companionship rather than isolation as a sign of weakness[20]. When older individuals are also faced with a reduction in income and job status, the older individual reportedly has a greater propensity towards solitude, isolation and loneliness[21]. Warner[22] found that those elderly adults who maintained their own independence had less of a need for dependent behaviour because of social cues, whereas those who were dependent, such as Mrs. Smythe’s father, Mr. Jones, reacted with a greater sense of learned dependency and associated social contact seeking behaviours. Practical nursing experience that provides a basis for nursing intervention in this case With the knowledge provided by two factors: research and LEIPAD[23], the three elderly individuals were administered the LEIPAD multidimensional assessment to gain a baseline for intervention[24]. LEIPAD is believed to be a stronger single assessment tool than using a combination of The SF-36, Barthel Index of activities of daily living and the Abbreviated Mental test, even though the Barthel Index is recommended by both the Royal College of Physicians of London and the British Geriatrics Society[25]. Mr. Jones requires the greatest intervention due to losses of his wife, independence and immediate social circle. Additionally, Mr. Jones has daily coping issues with his grandchildren. To date, practical nursing experience has primarily focused on education related to chronic diseases and disease prevention with elderly patients. Inconsistency is noted when relating to patients and relating to older members of one’s family, where greater emphasis is placed on psychological and social wellbeing. What has been learned from using the EBL approach to this case? In addition to the amount of research one can use to prepare and expand one’s horizons with an EBL approach, such as using the LEIPAD assessment rather than the Barthel Index, is the use of open-ended questions that solicit a wealth of information. Most practitioners like to keep answers to questions short or they will cut patients off in mid-sentence. Open-ended questions allow for further probing by active listening and a participatory manner. References Austin, Shari. Oral Health and Older Adults. Journal of Dental Hygiene, 2003. De Leo, Diego, Diekstra, Rene, Lonnqvist, Jouko , Trabucchi, Marco, Cleiren, Marc, Frisoni, Giovanni B., Dello Buono, Marirosa, Haltunen, Aro, Zucchetto, Mauro, Rozzini, Renzo, Grigoletto, Francesco, Sampaio-Faria, Jose. LIEPAD, An Internationally Applicable Instrument to Assess Quality of Life in the Elderly. Behavioral Medicine, 1998. Ginsberg, Gary, Hattis, Dale, Russ, Abel Sonawane, Babasaheb. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Factors that can Affect Sensitivity to Neurotoxic Sequelae in Elderly Individuals. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2005. Hutchins, Bill. Principles of Enquiry-Based Learning, Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-Based Learning Resources – University of Manchester, 2006. Kahn, Peter O’Rourke, Karen. Understanding Enquiry-Based Learning. In Barrett, T., McLabhrainn, I. Fallon, H. eds. Handbook of Enquiry Problem Based Learning, Galway: CELT, 2005. Lyons, Ronald Al., Crone, Peter, Monaghan, Stephen, Killalea, Dan Daley, John A. Health Status and Disability Among Elderly People in Three UK Districts. Age and Ageing, 1997. Office for National Statistics; General Register Office for Scotland and Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Population Estimates. 2006 [Online]. Available from: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6 (cited 1 May 2007). Price, Robert. Enquiry-Based Learning: An Introductory Guide. Nursing Standards, 2001. Rokach, Ami Brock, Heather. Loneliness and the Effects of Life Changes. The Journal of Psychology, 1997. Smith, Mark K. Life Span Development and Lifelong Learning. [Online]. Infed. Available from: http://www.infed.org/biblio/lifecourse_development.htm (cited 1 May 2007). Tosey, Paul McDonnell, Juliet, Mapping Enquiry Based Learning: Discourse, Fractals and a Bowl of Cherries. 2006. [Online]. Available from: http://www.com.survey.ac.uk/learningtolearn (cited 30 April 2007). Warner, Dorothy Ann. Empowering the Older Adult through Folklore. Adultspan Journal, 2006. Winters, Angela. Erikson’s Theory of Human Development. [Online]. Ezine Articles. Available from: http://ezinearticles.com/?Ericksons-Theory-of-Human-Developmentid=20117 (cited 1 May 2007). Footnotes [1] Office for National Statistics; General Register Office for Scotland and Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 2006. [2] Office for National Statistics, 2006. [3] Office for National Statistics, 2006. [4] R. Price, Enquiry-Based Learning: An Introductory Guide, Nursing Standards, 2001) 18. [5] B. Hutchings, Principles of Enquiry Based Learning, Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-Based Learning, University of Manchester, 2006 and Kahn O’Rourke, 2005. [6] A. Winters, Erikson’s Theory of Human Development. Ezine articles, 2007. [7] Winters, 2007. [8] M. Smith, Life Span Development and Lifelong Learning, 2005. [9] S. Austin, Oral Health and Older Adults, Journal of Dental Hygiene, 2003) 129. [10] Austin, 2003) 129. [11] Austin, 2003) 129. [12] Austin, 2003) 129. [13] Austin, 2003) 129. [14] Austin, 2003) 130. [15] Austin, 2003) 130. [16] G. Ginsberg et al., Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Factors that can Affect Sensitivity to Neurotoxic Sequelae in Elderly Individuals, Environmental Health Perspectives, 2005) 1249, [17] Tennant and Pogson, 1995 as cited by Smith, 2005. [18] A. Rokach H. Brock, Loneliness and the Effects of Life Change, The Journal of Psychology, 1997) 285. [19] Rokach Brock, 1997) 289. [20] Rokach Brock, 1997) 290. [21] Rokack Brock, 1997) 296. [22] D. A. Warner, Empowering the Older Adult through Folklore, Adultspan Journal, 2006. [23] D. DeLeo et al., LEIPAD, An Internationally Applicable Instrument to Assess Quality of Life in the Elderly, Behavioral Medicine, 1999) 27. The LEIPAD assessment was determined to assess physical, mental, social and occupational status, including self-assessments of health status and perceptions, inclusive of pain, self-esteem, self-confidence, levels of optimism, anxiety and depression, including feelings about friendship, happiness, loneliness, isolation and solitude. [24] DeLeo et al., 1999) 19. [25] R. A. Lyons, et al., Health Status and Disability Among Elderly People in Three UK Districts, Age and Ageing, 1997) 204. Gender issues: Who is the better teacher? Gender issues: Who is the better teacher? Gender has long been the issue in classroom for over decades. The question of who is a better teacher male of female has always been debated for years. Although this issue has dissipates following the issue of sexism and gender equity, it still knocks on the door of every classroom. Does a teachers gender affect student performance in the classroom? Does student performance increases when taught by teacher of the same sex, or is it the opposite? Many researches have been done in trying to answer these questions, but no definite conclusion has been made. Most of the researchers are still trying to figure out what actually constitutes to the students achievement in relation to teachers gender. There are two views when it comes to the influence of teachers gender effect in classroom, one accepts it and another one denies it. The first one says when students are taught by the teacher of the same sex as the students, the students achievement will increase. Some researchers are saying that students will perform better when taught by the same gender, as they feel more engaged and are able to identify themselves with the teacher because of the same gender factor. Gender role model, stereotypes, expectations, and teaching styles are some of the variables that are brought up when it comes to same-gender factor. Still, there are people who believe that teachers gender effect does not have any influence in students academic achievements. They believed that there is no ample evidence to support such notion, and even if there was, it was not sufficient and significant enough to be accepted as a sole reason for such occurrence. Although many researches had been made, there are still loopholes that need to be filled and studied. Inconsistent findings and conclusions given by previous researchers is one reason why further studies are needed. Some shortcomings and limitation from previous research are also need to be rectified. There are several elements that indirectly influence the teachers gender effect in classroom. Factors such as students perception towards teachers performance and effectiveness in class, and teachers level of interaction are some that will be touched in the article review. All of these elements will be reviewed in terms of gender differences. Because the literature on teachers gender issues is so broad, this review of literature begins by examining theories of gender role development and social learning theories. Next, gender role expectations and the stereotypical male and female student will be examined. This information will then be brought together with research specific to the classroom experience involving student and teacher interactions and research specific to teacher training. 2.1 TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS Effective teachers are those who achieve the goals which they set for themselves or which they have set for them by others (e.g ministries of education, legislators and other government officials, school administrators). As a consequence, those who study and attempt to improve teachers effectiveness must be cognizant of the goals imposed on teachers or the goals that teachers establish for themselves, or both. According to Kemp and Hall (1992), the major research finding is that student achievement is related to teacher competence in teaching. Differential teacher effectiveness is a strong determinant of differences in student learning, far outweighing the effects of differences in class size and class heterogeneity (Darling-Hammond, 2000) According to Sanders and Rivers (1996), students who are assigned to one ineffective teacher after another have significantly lower achievement and learning (that is, gains in achievement) than those who are assigned to a sequence of several highly effective teachers. It is important to note however, that the influence of teacher characteristics on teacher effectiveness is not direct; rather it is moderated or mediated by their effect on the way in which teachers organize their classrooms and operate within them. In Blooms (1972) terns, what teachers are influences what teachers do; what teachers do, in turn, influences what and how much students learn. When asked about their most effective teachers, boys and girls were able to identify a solid list of key characteristics reflected in educational research (Hill Rowe, 1996; Martin, 2002). In Ashley Lee (2003) boys tended consistently to identify the following factors as critical in the kinds of teacher they work well for and respect: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Firm, but fair: able to control the class well to inject humour but regain attention quickly à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Good subject knowledge and enthusiasm for the subject à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ability to explain things clearly and with patience Fazio and Roskes (1994), said, attitudes are important to educational psychology because they strongly influence social thought, the way an individual thinks about and process social information. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2001), positive teachers attitudes are fundamental to effective teaching. A teacher must be interesting. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) identified a number of teachers attitudes that will facilitate a caring and supportive classroom environment. They are: enthusiasm, caring, firm, democratic practices to promote students responsibility, use time for lesson effectively, have established efficient routines, and interact freely with students and providing motivation for them. According to Shulman (1987), poor communication can make learning even the most simple and straightforward subject-matter far more difficult. Research findings on teachers attitudes (Brunning et al., 1999), established the following facts: Teachers characteristics such as personal teaching efficacy, modeling and enthusiasm, caring and high expectation promote learners motivation. Male teachers tend to be more authoritative and instrumental whereas female teachers tend to be more supportive and expressive (Meece, 1987; Freeman McElhinny, 1996). Teachers variable are also noted to have effect on students academic performances. These includes, teachers knowledge of subject matter, teaching skills, attitude in the classroom, teachers, qualification and teaching experience. Ehindero and Ajibade (2000) asserted that, students, who are curious stakeholders in educational enterprise, have long suspected and speculated that some of their teachers lack the necessary professional (not academic) qualification (that is, skills, techniques, strategies, temperament et cetera) required to communicate concepts, ideas principles et cetera in a way that would facilitate effective learning. According to Kelley Massoni (2004), students expect male teachers as being more knowledgeable than women, and are assumed to be more objective. 2.2 STUDENTS EXPECTATION Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1948) first coined the term self-fulfilling prophecy. As part of his explanation of the SFP, Merton drew upon the idea: If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences (Thomas, 1928, p. 257). Then, if students really think about their teachers, somehow it will materialized in both of the teacher and students teaching and learning process. SFP research (Good, 1987) explains that teachers form expectations of and assign labels to people based upon such characteristics as body build, gender, race, ethnicity, given name and/or surname, attractiveness, dialect, and socioeconomic level, among others. Once we label a person, it affects how we act and react toward that person. With labels, we dont have to get to know the person. We can just assume what the person is like (Oakes, 1996, p. 11). Although self-fulfilling prophecy usually works based on teachers expectation, students also form their own expectation, and could also have their own self-fulfilling prophecy, working both ways, onto them, and also towards the teachers teaching process. The self-fulfilling prophecy works two ways. Not only do teachers form expectations of students, but students form expectations of teachers using the same characteristics described above (Hunsberger Cavanagh, 1988). 2.3 EVALUATION OF TEACHER Many studies reveal that students tend to rate female faculty members differently than male faculty members (Whitworth, Price Randall. 2002; Basow Silberg, 1987; Goodwin Stevens, 1993; Tartro, 1995). Students may hold biased perceptions of the differences between men and women faculty (Andersen Miller, 1997; Burns-Glover Veith, 1995). It is also possible, however, that students are accurately assessing the difference between teaching styles that is attributable to the gender of the faculty member (Centra Gaubatz, 2000). According to Kelley Massoni (2004), the impact of gender in teaching evaluations often is related to students differing gendered expectations of their women and men teachers. A study by Basow (1995) revealed that students perceived female instructors to be more sensitive and considerate of student ideas whereas male instructors were believed to be more knowledgeable. If students are, even in part, picking up on real differences, understanding the effect of gender on teaching styles is important. 2.4 PERCEPTION Perception may be defined from physical, psychological and physiological perspectives. But for the purpose of this study, it shall be limited to its scope as postulated by Allport (1966), which is the way we judge or evaluate others. That is the way individuals evaluate people with whom they are familiar in everyday life. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) gave cognitive dimension of perception; they see perception as the process by which people attach meaning to experiences. 2.5 GENDER BIAS Teachers are more likely to offer praise and remediation in response to comments by boys but mere acknowledgement in response to comments by girls (AAUW 1992, Sadker and Sadker 1994, Saltzman 1994, Kleinfeld 1998, Lewin 1998, and Sommers 2000). The only significant interaction that emerged was that girls reported a better relationship with female teachers than with male teachers, while boys reported fairly similar relationships (TES, 2005). According to Holmlund and Sund (2005), teachers are the role models for the students. If students identify themselves more with same-sex role models, it is possible that performance will be enhanced when students have a teacher of their own gender. Florian (2008) suggests that there is rich evidence within the psychology literature that girls and boys respond differently to mothers and fathers [e.g. Brown, 1990, Brown et al., 1986], and pick different celebrities and athletes to emulate. Male and female teachers are also potential role models. Harris and Barnes (2009) found that four-year-old boys preferred males to form a relationship and saw the male teacher as the person to be involved in sports and physical games. Teachers gender influences how that teacher interacts and communicates with his or her students (Constantinou, 2008). As Hurt, Scott and McCroskey (1978) have stated it, there is a difference between knowing and teaching, and that difference is communication in the classroom (p. 3). According to Dee (2006), assignment to a same-gender teacher significantly improves the achievement of both girls and boys as well as teacher perceptions of student performance and student engagement with the teachers subject. He also found that, having a teacher of the same sex increased a students score on standardized tests significantly while having a teacher of the opposite sex decreased scores. But Florian (2008) finds that male students performing worse with female instructor, while female performance appear unaffected. According to Dee (2006), in a class taught by a man, girls were more likely to say the subject was not useful for their future and they were less likely to look forward to the class or to ask questions. 2.6 CONCLUSION Teachers may react in a different way depending on the gender of a student, or students may react in a different way depending on the gender of a teacher. Firstly, teachers discriminate, and display bias with respect to how they engage or assess boys and girls in the classroom. The mode teachers behave interacting with boys or girls may rely on whether teachers themselves are male or female. These effects may be conscious or unconscious. Secondly, students may see teachers more as role models if they are of the same sex, and show greater intellectual engagement, manner, and interest. Students may also react to teachers through negative stereotype for example, when female students are reminded about a belief they are not supposed to be good at math when being taught by a male teacher. Another probability is that male and female students respond differently to male and female teaching styles. It is important for teacher to know what he/she is expected from the students. Fulfilling the expectation can make learning process easier for the students and make them more motivated.

Images of Africa in Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart Essay

Images of Africa in Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness portrays an image of Africa that is dark and inhuman.   Not only does he describe the actual, physical continent of Africa as "so hopeless and so dark, so impenetrable to human thought, so pitiless to human weakness" (Conrad 94), as though the continent could neither breed nor support any true human life, but he also manages to depict Africans as though they are not worthy of the respect commonly due to the white man.   At one point the main character, Marlow, describes one of the paths he follows: "Can't say I saw any road or any upkeep, unless the body of a middle-aged negro, with a bullet-hole in the forehead, upon which I absolutely stumbled three miles farther on, may be considered as a permanent improvement" (48).   Conrad's description of Africa and Africans served to misinform the Western world, and went uncontested for many years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1958 Chinua Achebe published his first and most widely acclaimed novel, Things Fall Apart.   This work-commonly acknowledged as the single most well known African novel in the world-depicts an image of Africa that humanizes both the continent and the people.   Achebe once said, "Reading Heart of Darkness . . . I realized that I was one of those savages jumping up and down on the beach.   Once that kind of enlightenment comes to you, you realize that someone has to write a different story" (Gikandi 8-9); Achebe openly admits that he wrote Things Fall Apart because of the horrible characterization of Africans in many European works, especially Heart of Darkness.   In many ways, Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart can be seen as an Afrocentric rebuttal to the Eurocentric depi... ...t of Darkness.    Works Cited Achebe, Chinua.   "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness." Heart of Darkness: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Essays in Criticism.   3rd  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ed.   Ed. Robert Kimbrough.   New York: W.W. Norton, 1988.   251-262. ---.   Things Fall Apart.   Greenwich: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1959. Boahen, A. Adu.   African Perspectives on Colonialism.   Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. Conrad, Joseph.   Heart of Darkness.   London: Penguin Books, 1989. "Doctrines on Colonialism."   The Government of Tibet in Exile.   3 May 2000. http://www.tibet.com/Humanrights/Unpo/chap2.html>. Gikandi, Simon.   "Chinua Achebe and the Invention of African Literature."   Classics in Context: Things Fall Apart.   Chinua Achebe.   Portsmouth: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1996      

Classification Essay - Three Types of Dieters :: Classification Essays

Three Types of Dieters A sad fact in American society is that thousands of people search for the elusive dream of being thin. On any given day, one finds neighbors, friends, and relatives on some kind of diet. Dieters assume various disguises, but the noteworthy ones are the "bandwagoneer," the "promiser" and the "lethal loser." Everyone wants to lose weight quickly and effortlessly; therefore, any fad diet promising overnight results becomes the new "call" of the "bandwagoneer." She tries the grapefruit diet or the watermelon diet, but she decides her stomach cannot possibly deal with all of that fruit. The next day the television advertises a new wonder pill that allows the user to lose up to ten pounds in one week, and the "bandwagoneer" answers the "call." Although the magic pill does not produce the desired weight loss, she never gives up hope for a new "wagon" to hitch onto. Once again, this dieter is lured by advertisements of instant spot reduction--liposuction. She crosses over the safety line into a danger zone of unknown procedures, performed by unqualified physicians. Some dieters lose their lives in the search for a beautiful body. The stomach staple is another dieting tool that dieters try. The staple yields a large weight loss, but the dieter endangers her health because of excess loss of body fluids. The "bandwagoneer" is always listening for the newest cure on the dieting market. A family wedding or a special dance is a logical reason for a woman to decide it is time to take off her few, unwanted pounds; however, decisions made in haste are hard to keep, and the "promiser" soon fails in her attempt. She is the dieter with only fifteen pounds to lose, and, as each year flies by, she decides dieting is harder than eating what she wants to, and much less fun! She promises to lose the extra weight for her ten-year class reunion, but her weight-loss pledge is not kept. Some women become "promisers" during their pregnancies, and they broadcast to all within hearing distance that they will lose the extra pounds as soon as the baby is born. The "tomorrow promiser" and the "Monday promiser" are the dieters with whom most people are familiar and whose excuses they know.

Melvin Udall Essay

As humans, we are all able to recognize within ourselves traits that may seemingly pertain to a myriad of psychological disorders. We often are quick to label and jest about aspects of our personalities, excusing our quirks and differences by using expressions like â€Å"I’m so OCD about that† or â€Å"she’s so bipolar sometimes. † But when we take a moment to stop and think, the way we lightly apply terms such as OCD and bipolar do not begin to encompass the reality of what these disorders mean for some. Many times we make light of somber subjects due to lack of understanding, and it is for this reason why we must strive to comprehend the immense burden behind psychological disorders. We must strive to understand that psychological disorders consume the lives of individuals just as physical illnesses do, and desist from labeling our â€Å"abnormal† personality traits with words we have no grasp upon. At this point you may be asking yourself, how one would ever understand psychological illness without experiencing it first hand? Because we do not all plan to become psychologists and psychiatrists with the opportunity to interact with clinically diagnosed patients, one of the best ways to expand one’s knowledge of psychological disorders is through film. Being able to contextually see the symptoms and life course of a psychological disorder within a film character, allows for an increase in appreciation and empathy within real life situations. As Good As it Gets, a 1997 romantic comedy directed by James Brooks offers an excellent example of a film depicting a psychological disorder.

Describe Your High School Experience

Why I want to become a Nurse Being a Nurse is much more than just hard work, critical thinking skills, evidence-based practice, and saving lives. It is a science as well as an art and one has to be a caring individual to be a truly great nurse. To be a Nurse, one has to be dedicated to helping others and caring about others to a great extent. I posses those qualities that makes a great nurse and that is why I want to be a Nurse. Growing up in Jamaica, I was always taking care of others; from my grandparents to my next door neighbors.I always enjoyed helping them and they never even had to ask because I was always there. We didn’t have much access to healthcare in Jamaica so anyone in the neighborhood that was in the healthcare field was often looked up to for advice and help. My mother was one of those people; she was a Nurse and everyone in the neighborhood admired her, including me. I knew that when I grew up I wanted to become just like her. When my mother would come home f rom work with stories of how she helped saved someone’s life, I would get more excited and eager for the days when I can do the same.When I came to America, the first thing I wanted to know was how and where can I go to become a Nurse. Now I am a Licensed Practical Nurse for many years and now I am financially, emotionally, and physically ready to further my education to be a Registered Nurse. I will continue to further my education in the Nursing field because I enjoy it so much. The atmosphere of it all keeps me on my feet and I continue to learn more and more every day.Not only am I helping others but I care about them as if they are my own family. Being in the healthcare field, one cannot help but care and give their all. I do this to care for my patients everyday that I am at work. I want to be able to help others and save lives and it is so rewarding to see the smiles on the patients’ face when I have done something to make them feel better. Its such a hard profe ssion and very stressful at times, but I would never trade it for any other career.I cannot see myself doing anything else because I am helping others like I‘ve grown up doing but it matters so much more now. I grew up always wanting to be a Nurse and that will never change. Nursing is such a great profession where you get to care for others in need. You feel each patient’s pain, hear their stories, and try your best to make everything better for them. I wanted to become a Nurse so that I can help others and help save lives and I will always see myself doing that and so much more.

Colgate Segmentation Essay

Concept of Working Capital Working capital refers to short-term funds, need to meet operating expenses. It refers to the funds; to finance its day-to-day operations. It is concerned with current assets and current liabilities. If a firm can’t maintain a satisfactory level of working capital, it may become insolvent or bankrupt. Broadly there are 2 concepts of working capital, such as: 1. Gross Working Capital (Quantitative Concept) 2. Net working Capital (Qualitative Concept) Both these concepts of working capital have operational significance. The two concepts are not mutually exclusive. The ‘gross concept’ emphasizing the ‘use’ and the ‘net concept’ emphasizes the ‘source’. 1. Gross Working Capital The total current assets are termed as the gross working capital. It is also known as quantitative or circulating capital. It refers to firm’s investment in short term assets such as cash, marketable securities, accounts receivables, prepaid expenses, inventories etc. Significance a. Optimum investment in current assets. -: Inadequate working capital leads to insolvency and excessive will lead to less profitability. Financing of current assets. -: If funds arise it should be invested in short term securities, don’t keep it idle. 2. Net Working Capital The excess of current assets over current liabilities represents net working capital. It may be positive or negative. Net working capital indicates the liquidity of the business. Significance a. Maintaining Liquidity Position-: Current assets help in meeting financial obligations. Generally for every one rupee of current asset there should be one rupee of current liability. b. Extent of long term capital n financing current assets-: If there are Rs 100000 current assets and Rs 75000 current liabilities then NWC is Rs 25000, and it supposed to be financed from long term funds. Efficient management of working capital involves control over the current assets and current liabilities, which are the main components of working capital. 1. Components of current assets: Currents assets are those, can be converted into cash within a year. It consists of cash, marketable securities, inventories, debtors, prepaid expenses. 2. Components of current Liabilities: Current liabilities are those to be paid in a year. It consists of creditors, short-term borrowings, taxes and proposed dividends.   To ensure optimum investment in current assets. †¢ To ensure adequate flow of funds for current operations. †¢ To speed up the flow of funds. †¢ Maintain liquidity and profitability. Maximize shareholders’ wealth possible only when there is sufficient return. †¢ Discharge day-to-day liabilities. †¢ Protect the business from adverse effects in emergencies. †¢ Determines the relevant levels of current assets and their efficient use. To sustain sales activity. Sales don’t convert into cash immediately. It needs time to collection of cash. For maximization profits or minimize working capital cost and maintain balance between liquidity and profitability, we need to maintain a balance in working capital. It should not be excessive or inadequate. Firm should manage adequate working capital to run its business †¢ Excessive working capital means idle funds which earns no profit. †¢ Inadequate working capital disturbs production and weakens the firm’s profitability. Danger of Excessive Working Capital †¢ It results in unnecessary accumulation of inventories, which lead to mishandling like waste, theft and losses. †¢ It is indication of defective credit policy and slack collection period. This leads to higher bad debts that reduce profits. †¢ It makes managerial inefficiency. †¢ Accumulation inventories tend to make speculative profits grow. This type of speculation makes the firm to follow liberal dividend policy and difficult to cope up with in future when the firm is unable to make speculative profits. Danger of Inadequate Working Capital: It declines growth because it’s difficult to undertake profitable projects for non-availability of working capital. †¢ Difficult to implement operating plans and achieve firm’s target. †¢ Difficult to meet day-to-day commitments. †¢ Inefficient utilization of fixed assets. †¢ The firm unable to avail attractive credit opportunities. †¢ Firm loses its reputation. The continuing flow from cash: to suppliers: to inventory: to accounts receivables and back into cash is operating cycle. 1. Operating cycle for manufacturing firm: ` Stock of raw material is held in order to ensure smooth production. Similarly stock of finished goods has to be carried out to meet the demand. 2. Operating Cycle of a Non-manufacturing Firm Non-manufacturing firms are wholesalers, retailers, service firms. They will have the direct conversion of cash into finished goods and into cash.

Civil War Leaders and Their Conflicts essays

Civil War Leaders and Their Conflicts essays Ever have one of those times in which you just dont know whos right? Well, both General Robert E. Lee, and President Abraham Lincoln had one of those times, during the civil war. Robert E. Lees Letter to His Son, shows the conflict that took place in him, between aligning his power with his state, or aligning with the union. However, Abraham Lincolns conflict was how to just keep the union together. His speeches of Gettysburg, and his 2nd Inaugural address, show this personal conflict. The two major players during the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln, and Robert E. Lee, both had personal conflicts, regarding the union. Abraham Lincoln, the Civil War president. While it seems that he had everything in his favor, he also had a personal struggle, with the north and south. This is shown in his Gettysburg speech, ... [t]esting whether that a nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. This explains that the conflict of the north and south is not one conflict that can be done by many nations, and that this nation is torn between ideas. However, this conflict is really shown in his 2nd inaugural speech, Both parties deprecated war...but one would make war...and the other would accept war. This clearly shows that Lincoln not only blames the north for the war, but the south also. Unlike Robert E. Lees conflict, Lincolns conflict involves the nation, and not just himself. Robert E. Lees conflict, was one personal to him. In Letter to his Son, Lee tells his son that, I take great pride in my country...and would defend ant state if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union. This tells us that Lee wants to support his nation, but also wants to support the state in which he lives. He proclaims that, I hope...that all constitutional means will be ...

Profile of Enheduanna, Priestess of Inanna

Profile of Enheduanna, Priestess of Inanna Enheduanna is the earliest author and poet in the world that history knows by name. Enheduanna (Enheduana) was the daughter of the great Mesopotamian king, Sargon of Akkad. Her father was Akkadian, a Semitic people. Her mother may have been Sumerian. Enheduanna was the appointed by her father to be priestess of the temple of Nanna, the Akkadian moon god, in the largest city and center of her fathers empire, the city of Ur. In this position, she would also have traveled to other cities in the empire.  She also apparently held some civil authority, signaled by the En in her name. Enheduanna helped her father solidify his political power and unite the Sumerian city-states by merging the worship of many local city goddesses into the worship of the Sumerian goddess, Inanna, raising Inanna to a superior position over other deities. Enheduanna wrote  three hymns to Inanna which survive and which illustrate three quite different themes of ancient religious faith. In one, Inanna is a ferocious warrior goddess who defeats a mountain even though other gods refuse to help her. A second, thirty stanzas in length, celebrates Inannas role in governing civilization and overseeing the home and children. In a third, Enheduanna calls on her personal relationship with the goddess for help in regaining her position as priestess of the temple against a male usurper. The long text that tells the story of Inanna is believed by a few scholars to be mistakenly attributed to Enheduanna but the consensus is that it is hers. At least 42, perhaps as many as 53, other hymns survive that are attributed to Enheduanna, including three hymns to the moon god, Nanna, and other temples, gods, and goddesses. Surviving cuneiform tablets with the hymns are copies from about 500 years after Enheduanna lived, attesting to the survival of the study of her poems in Sumer.  No contemporary tablets survive. Because we dont know how the language was pronounced, we cannot study some of the format and style of her poems. The poems seem to have eight to twelve syllables per line, and many lines end with vowel sounds. She also uses repetition of sounds, words, and phrases. Her father ruled for 55 years and appointed her to the high priestess position late in his reign.  When he died and was succeeded by his son, she continued in that position. When that brother died and another succeeded him, she remained in her powerful position.  When her second ruling brother died, and Enheduannas nephew Naram-Sin took over, she again continued in her position.  She may have written her long poems during his reign, as answers to parties that rebelled against him. (The name Enheduanna is also written as Enheduana. The name Inanna is also written as Inana.) Dates:  about 2300 BCE - estimated at 2350 or 2250 BCEOccupation:  priestess of Nanna, poet, hymn writerAlso Known as:  Enheduana, En-hedu-AnaPlaces:  Sumer (Sumeria), City of Ur Family Father: King Sargon the Great (Sargon of Agade or Akkad, ~2334-2279 BCE) Enheduanna: Bibliography Betty De Shong Meador. Inanna, Lady of Largest Heart: Poems of the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna. 2001.Samuel N. Kramer, Diane Wolkstein. Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth. 1983.

5 More Tips for Cleaning Up Your Writing Right Now

5 More Tips for Cleaning Up Your Writing Right Now 5 More Tips for Cleaning Up Your Writing Right Now 5 More Tips for Cleaning Up Your Writing Right Now By Mark Nichol Last week, I offered some simple advice for immediately improving your prose, including suggestions having to do with punctuation, capitalization, and the like. Here are more recommendations, this time dealing with more qualitative issues: 1. Avoid cliches like the plague: You can’t omit them altogether and you shouldn’t try but take care when recasting a tired word or phrase into something fresh and new. When calling attention to hypocrisy, instead of reciting the cliche â€Å"This is a case of the pot calling the kettle black,† you could write, â€Å"Keywords: pot, kettle, black.† You can also play with words, referring to an especially distraught drama queen as a trauma queen. 2. Avoid filler phrases: Delete content-free wording like â€Å"be that as it may,† â€Å"to all intents and purposes,† and â€Å"in the final analysis.† These prolix protrusions pop up naturally in speech to bridge a gap between one thought and the next, but although you’re forgiven for including them in a first draft, there’s no excuse for letting them pass inspection when you review your writing or edit someone else’s. 3. Avoid verbosity: Watch for wordy phrases like â€Å"in order to,† unnecessary words and phrases like currently and â€Å"that is,† and smothered verbs (constructions in which a noun can be transformed into a verb, such as â€Å"offered an indication† when indicate will do.) 4. Avoid redundancies and repetition and saying the same thing twice: Take care to avoid doppleganger words in stock phrases common, like filler phrases, to spoken language but inimical to good writing like â€Å"actual fact† and â€Å"completely finished.† 5. Avoid repetitive sentence structure: Craft your prose in such a way that phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs flow smoothly (avoid a Dick-and-Jane style of writing reminiscent of text in primary-grade reading books) and consider the visual impact of your writing. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:What Does [sic] Mean?3 Types of HeadingsConfusion of Subjective and Objective Pronouns

The History of Steam Engines

The History of Steam Engines Before the invention of the gasoline-powered engine, mechanical transportation was fueled by steam. In fact, the concept of a steam engine pre-dates modern engines by a couple thousand years as mathametician and engineer Heron of Alexandria, who lived in Roman Egypt during the first century, was the first to describe a rudimentary version he named the Aeolipile.   Along the way, a number of leading scientists who toyed with the idea of using the force generated by heating water to power a machine of some sort. One of them was none other than Leonardo Da Vinci who drew up designs for a steam powered cannon called the Architonnerre sometime during the 15th century. A basic steam turbine was also detailed in papers written by the Egyptian astronomer, philosopher and engineer  Taqi ad-Din  in 1551.  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, the real groundwork for the development of a  practical, working motor didnt come about until the mid-1600s. It was during this century that several inventors were able to develop and test water pumps as well as piston systems that would pave the way for the commercial steam engine. From that point, the commercial steam engine was then made possible by the efforts of three important figures. Thomas Savery (1650-1715) Thomas Savery was an English military engineer and inventor. In 1698, he patented the first crude  steam engine  based on Denis Papins Digester or pressure cooker of 1679. Savery had been working on solving the problem of pumping water out of coal mines when he came up with an idea for an engine powered by steam. His machine consisted of a closed vessel filled with water in which steam under pressure was introduced. This forced the water upwards and out of the mine shaft. A cold water sprinkler was then used to condense the steam. This created a vacuum which sucked more water out of the mine shaft through a bottom valve. Thomas Savery later worked with Thomas Newcomen on the atmospheric steam engine. Among Saverys other inventions was an  odometer  for ships, a device that measured distance traveled. To learn more about Thomas Savery the inventor, check out his biography.  Ive also written a description of Savery’s crude steam engine.   Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) Thomas Newcomen was an English blacksmith who invented the atmospheric steam engine. The invention was an improvement over Thomas Slaverys previous design. The Newcomen steam engine used the force of atmospheric pressure to do the work. This process begins with the engine pumping steam into a cylinder. The steam was then condensed by cold water, which created a vacuum on the inside of the cylinder. The resulting atmospheric pressure operated a piston, creating downward strokes. With Newcomens enginee, the intensity of pressure was not limited by the pressure of the steam, a departure from what Thomas Savery had patented in 1698. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen, together with John Calley, built their first engine on top of a water filled mine shaft and used it to pump water out of the mine. The Newcomen engine was the predecessor to the Watt engine and it was one of the most interesting pieces of technology developed during the 1700s. To learn more about Thomas Newcomen and his steam engine, check out this biography. Photos and a diagram of Newcomen’s steam engine can be found at Niagara college’s professor Mark Csele’s website. James Watt (1736-1819) Born in Greenock, James Watt was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer who was renowned for the improvements he made to the steam engine. While working for the University of Glasgow in 1765, Watt was assigned the task of repairing a Newcomen engine that was deemed inefficient but the best steam engine of its time. That started the inventor working on several improvements to Newcomens design. The most notable improvement was Watts 1769 patent for a separate condenser connected to a cylinder by a valve. Unlike Newcomens engine, Watts design had a condenser that could be cool while the cylinder was hot. Eventually Watts engine would become the  dominant design  for all modern steam engines and helped bring about the  industrial revolution. A unit of power called the Watt was named after James Watt. the Watt symbol is W, and it is equal to 1/746 of a horsepower, or one volt times one amp.